The shift to tougher penal policies three decades ago was originally credited with helping people in poor neighborhoods by reducing crime. But now that America’s incarceration rate has risen to be the world’s highest, many social scientists find the social benefits to be far outweighed by the costs to those communities.

The burden of lost economic opportunity falls hardest on Black and Hispanic individuals who are disproportionately represented in the justice-involved population, according to a study of formerly incarcerated New Yorkers by the Brennan Center for Justice at the New York University School of Law.

More than 2.2 million people are incarcerated in the United States and more than 620,000 are released from prison annually. Approximately one-third of those released will return to prison at some point in their lives. Moreover, research shows that individuals with criminal records are less likely to be employed, worsening economic disparities and increasing recidivism.